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Etymology: Khinalug zäkʼ 'ashes' originates from North Caucasian *HrimqʼːʷV̆ [NCED: 606], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *riqʼːʷˤ 'ashes'.
A second word for 'bark' is qabˈɨʁ {къабыгъ} 'bark / peel / shell', quoted in [Ganieva 2002: 161, 391]: a more recent borrowing from literary Azerbaijani gabɨg 'bark'.
Distinct from the specific term for 'stomach': mičˈi [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 36] ~ mičʰˈi {мичи} [Ganieva 2002: 224].
Distinct from qursˈaʁ {къурсагъ} 'animal stomach' [Ganieva 2002: 181], borrowed from Azerbaijani gursag 'abomasum; stomach, belly'.
Etymology: Khinalug šax 'belly' originates from North Caucasian *čiwxːVː 'a part of stomach or craw' vel sim. [NCED: 346], cognate with some scant Lezgian forms of similar semantics.
Distinct from several more specific or marginal terms: zorbˈa {зорба}, which, according to examples, means something like 'massive (Russian: крупный)' and 'huge' [Ganieva 2002: 124, 365] (borrowed from Azerbaijani zorba 'big, massive, huge'); yakʰˈa {йака} 'big' with the only example "big boy" [Ganieva 2002: 136, 365] (borrowed from Azerbaijani yekä ~ äkä 'big, large'); qʰazˈɨ {хъазы} 'massive (Russian: крупный)' [Ganieva 2002: 312, 365].
Distinct from inherited cʼim-ˈir {цIимир} 'sparrow' [Ganieva 2002: 326; Kibrik et al. 1972: 316].
Etymology: Theoretically, cʼim-ˈir 'sparrow' can represent the basic Proto-Khinalug term for 'small/middle bird (in general)' (cf. similar situation in Lezgian lects). It originates from Proto-North Caucasian *cʼːʷämʔV̆ 'eagle' [NCED: 370], cognate with some scant Lezgian forms of similar semantics.
A second candidate is didmˈiš-k-iri {дидмишкири} 'to bite' [Ganieva 2002: 100, 394; Kibrik et al. 1972: 289]. It must be noted that, according to Ganieva, it is the default Khinalug verb for 'to bite', cf. the examples: "he is biting his nail", "the wolf has bitten the sheep" [Ganieva 2002: 100]. A complex verb, with the Khinalug auxiliary kʰ-iri / kʰ-wi 'to do'. The nucleus didmˈiš is a borrowing from the Azerbaijani perfect stem did-miš- (infinitive did-mäk) 'to shred, pluck, scutch, pull about'.
Distinct from the complex verb čʼi-class-x-wi {чIихьири} with polysemy: 'to hold / to seize / to catch / to bite' [Ganieva 2002: 343; Kibrik et al. 1972: 319] (-x-wi is the auxiliary verb, not used independently). According to available examples, in the meaning 'to bite' it is only applicable to dogs, with the semantic derivation {'to seize' > 'to bite'}: "When I was a kid, a dog bit me" [Kerimov 1985: 43], "I have unleashed the dog so that it may bite [undesirable persons]" [Kerimov 1985: 90], "don't enter the courtyard, the dog will bite you" [Kerimov 1985: 123], "let the dog not bite them" [Kerimov 1985: 153].
Etymology: The analytical construction kʼakʼa-kʰ-iri 'to do a bite' looks like a recent introduction of areal origin (cf. similar patterns in Nuclear Lezgian). The Khinalug root kʼakʼa- 'a bite' lacks etymology.
Etymology: Khinalug mičʼä 'black' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *miːčʼV 'dark, a k. of dark color' [NCED: 819]. Khinalug mičʼä is cognate with the Proto-Lezgian root *mičʼ[ä]-, whose Proto-Lezgian meaning was apparently 'dark', although in Udi it is indeed reflected as 'black' (seemingly, a case of homoplasy). Due to semantic difference between Khinalug and Nuclear Lezgian lects, there is no reason to treat the Khinalug form as a Lezgian loanword.
A second, more marginal term for 'blood' is qan {къан} [Ganieva 2002: 167, 393], borrowed from Azerbaijani gan 'blood'.
Etymology: Khinalug pʼi 'blood' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *pʼiħV [NCED: 879], which competes with *hʷĕʔnV [NCED: 496] for the status of the Proto-North Caucasian term for 'blood'. Khinalug pʼi is cognate to Proto-Lezgian *pːiy (~ pʼ-), whose meaning was either 'blood vessel' or even 'blood' per se (Lezgian *pːiy means 'blood' at least in Udi and Archi).
Etymology: Khinalug inkʼ 'bone' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ɦreƛʼːʷĕ (~ -ĭ) 'bone' [NCED: 528], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *yirƛʼː 'bone'.
Distinct from maχˈar {махар} 'female breast' [Ganieva 2002: 214, 376; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 23; Kibrik et al. 1972: 303, 328], borrowed from Kryts-Budukh maχar 'breast (in general)'.
Cf. the second verb for 'to burn (intrans.)', which is a close synonym to k-i: class=ˈuv-i {йуври} [Ganieva 2002: 144; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 94; Kibrik et al. 1972: 297, 328].
Etymology: Khinalug =(e)kː- 'to burn' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=oːgʷV [NCED: 860], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʔokːʷɨ- 'to burn'.
Distinct from dɨrnˈaʁ {дырнагъ} with polysemy: 'claw / hoof' [Ganieva 2002: 105; Kibrik et al. 1972: 289, 331], borrowed from Azerbaijani dɨrnag 'fingernail, claw, hoof'.
Etymology: Khinalug čʰimi 'fingernail' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *mɦäːƛă (~ -ǝ̆) 'fingernail' [NCED: 814], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *mːäɬː 'fingernail'.
Etymology: Khinalug unkʼ 'cloud' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *rĕnƛʼːʷV̆ (~ -ä̆-) 'a k. of cloud, fog' vel sim. [NCED: 947], without Lezgian cognates.
Etymology: Khinalug =(ä)q- 'to get cold' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=HĭɢAː 'to get cold' [NCED: 568], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʡiqˤä- 'to get cold'. The synchronic participle from this verb forms the basic terms for 'cold (adj.)' in Archi and Northern Tabasaran.
The stems are prefixed with the common spatial prefix kʰa= 'towards the speaker' [Kibrik et al. 1972: 226], and contain the suppletive verb =kː-wi [imperf.] / =(ɨ)ʁ-i [perf.], which forms a great number of prefixal and complex verbs of motion. Imperfective =kː-wi is used independently as the imperfective stem k-wi 'to go' q.v., whereas perfective =(ɨ)ʁ-i is not attested in independent use. See notes on 'to go' for additional detail.
Etymology: No etymology for =kː-, but perfective =(ɨ)ʁ- is cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian verb *ʔiqːʷˤä- 'to go / to come' with imperfective function; see notes on 'to go'.
Imperative =(ɨ)r apparently goes back to the Proto-North Caucasian verb of motion *=VʔʷV(r) [NCED: 1016], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian verb *ʔVʔʷV(r)- 'to come' with perfective function.
Quite different in [NCED: 422], where the spatial prefix kʰa= is regarded as a verbal root with the meaning 'to come' (further to Proto-North Caucasian motion verb *=ǝːrƛːŬ). We prefer to reject such an analysis.
Etymology: Khinalug (i)kʼ- 'to die' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=iwƛʼĔ 'to die / to kill' [NCED: 661], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian labile verb *ʔiƛʼe 'to die / to kill'.
Etymology: Khinalug pχra 'dog' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *χːʷĕHye 'dog' [NCED: 1073] (in [NCED], reconstructed as *χːHʷĕye), cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *χːʷäya 'dog'.
Etymology: No reliable etymology. Cf. [NCED: 1028], where it is supposed that cʰu(v)- 'to dink' could be related to Khinalug rɨ=cʰ- 'to wash'.
Distinct from qurˈaʁ {къурагъ} 'dry (of climate), drought ' [Ganieva 2002: 181], borrowed from Azerbaijani gurag 'drought; arid'.
Etymology: Khinalug (i)qʼ- '(to be) dry' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=iɢːʷĂr '(to be) dry' [NCED: 631], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʔiqʼːʷar- '(to be) dry'.
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug tʼopʰ 'ear' is unclear.
Distinct from tʰurpˈaʁ {турпагъ} 'earth, territory' [Ganieva 2002: 281, 385; Kibrik et al. 1972: 315, 330], borrowed from Azerbaijani torpag 'earth (soil, plot, land, ground)'.
Distinct from antʰ {ант} with polysemy: 'field, steppe / earth, ground, land / floor / flat, even, plane' [Ganieva 2002: 41, 385; Kibrik et al. 1972: 284, 330].
Distinct from twa {ттва} 'Earth' [Ganieva 2002: 284, 385; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 199].
Etymology: Khinalug inči 'soil' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *yoːmɕːV 'earth, soil (?)' [NCED: 684], cognate to Proto-Lezgian *yo(m)čV (~ ʔ-), which we prefer to reconstruct with the meaning 'earth floor', although in Nidzh Udi, it has shifted to the basic meaning 'earth, soil'.
Khinalug antʰ 'earth, ground, land, field' can be compared to the Proto-Tsezian term for 'dirt, mud' < North Caucasian *ʔantV (~ -m-), see [NCED: 201].
The origin of Khinalug twa 'Earth' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug qʼan- 'to eat' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *HĕmɢːĂ 'to bite' [NCED: 559], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʔeqʼːɨ- 'to bite' q.v.; hence, the shift {'to bite' > 'to eat'} in Khinalug.
Etymology: as proposed in [NCED: 259], Khinalug kʼaz 'egg' can be deduced from Proto-North Caucasian *=akʼŭr 'to roll, rotate' with the meaning development {'to roll' > 'round' > 'egg'}.
Etymology: Khinalug pʰil 'eye' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ʡʷĭlʡi 'eye' [NCED: 250], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʔʷil 'eye'.
Distinct from the more marginal term yaʁlˈɨ {йагълы} 'fat (n.) / fat (adj.)' [Ganieva 2002: 136], borrowed from Azerbaijani yaɣlɨ 'fat (adj.)'.
Etymology: Khinalug mi 'fat' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *măɦʷV (~ -ŏ-) 'fat' [NCED: 794], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *maʔˤ 'fat'.
A second term for 'feather' is yälˈäkʰ {йаьлаьк} [Ganieva 2002: 140, 414], borrowed from Azerbaijani yeläk 'feather'.
Distinct from tʰükʰ {туьк} 'down / face hair' [Ganieva 2002: 281], borrowed from Azerbaijani tük 'hair, fur, down'.
Etymology: Khinalug čʼä 'fire' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *cʼăyɨ̆ 'fire' [NCED: 354], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *cʼay 'fire'.
Distinct from naqːˈa {накъкъа} 'large fish' [Ganieva 2002: 230], borrowed from Azerbaijani nagga ~ naxa 'sheatfish'.
There are two documented terms for 'foot' in Khinalug:
1) the borrowed form pʰačʰˈa, which is quoted as a generic term for 'foot + leg' in [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 30] (only as 'foot' in earlier [Kibrik et al. 1972: 306, 334]). In [Ganieva 2002: 244, 407], it is glossed as Russian "нога", which can mean 'foot', 'leg' or 'foot + leg', but, according to Ganieva's examples, this frequent word denotes both 'foot' and 'leg' (with additional polysemy: 'foot / leg / paw / furniture leg / kick'). It should be noted that in [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990; Kibrik et al. 1972], as well as [Kerimov 1985: 91, 105, 108, 131], it is transcribed as pʰačʰa {пача}, whereas in [Ganieva 2002: 244] the consistent transcription pačʰa {ппача} is offered, which is either a late dissimilated variant or an error. Borrowed from Azerbaijani pača 'back of the thigh; shin, shank; animal leg (as food)';
2) the inherited form ankʰ, which is explained as 'foot + leg below the knee' in [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 31]. In [Ganieva 2002: 40, 407; Kibrik et al. 1972: 284, 334] ankʰ is simply glossed as Russian "нога", but, according to Ganieva's examples, this frequent term also denotes both 'foot' and 'leg' (with additional polysemy: 'foot / leg / paw / furniture leg').
It seems that pʰačʰˈa and ankʰ are used in the modern language on a more or less equal basis. Apparently, the inherited ankʰ is currently being superseded by the borrowing pʰačʰˈa.
Etymology: Khinalug ankʰ 'foot, leg' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *HnĕgVː 'a part of leg' [NCED: 594] (no Lezgian cognates).
Etymology: Khinalug (e)cʼ- 'to fill, (to be) full' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=ɦŏcʼV 'to fill, full' [NCED: 525], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *hˤacʼɨ- '(to be) full'.
A close paronymous synonym is lˈä=class=kʼ-wi {лаькIири} 'to give' [Ganieva 2002: 206, 377; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 68; Kibrik et al. 1972: 302, 328], which is specified in [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988] as 'to give, return'.
Initial tʰä= 'horizontally to' & lä= 'horizontally from' are common spatial prefixes [Kibrik et al. 1972: 225 ff.].
Etymology: Khinalug =kʼ- 'to give' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=ĭᴌːV 'to give' [NCED: 640], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʔiƛːɨ- 'to give'.
Distinct from qˈini {къини}, which is glossed as general 'good' in [Kibrik et al. 1972: 308, 343], but, according to [Ganieva 2002: 176], this one means specifically 'kind, openhearted / in good order / comfortable, well-appointed'.
A second, more marginal candidate is gog {гог} with polysemy: 'grass, greenery / green' [Ganieva 2002: 77, 385], borrowed from Azerbaijani *gög (> Modern göy) 'green / greenery / blue / sky'.
Etymology: No reliable etymology for Khinalug sɨb 'green'. It is tentatively proposed in [NCED: 973 f.] that the Khinalug word can be analyzed as sɨ-b < *sɨn-b with the fossilized class 3 exponent -b; further to Proto-North Caucasian *sʸiːnV 'a k. of color like green or blue' [NCED: 973] (without cognates in Lezgian).
Distinct from čʼar {чIар} 'a single hair' [Ganieva 2002: 340; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 42; Kibrik et al. 1972: 318, 326]. According to [Ganieva 2002], however, the plural form čʼar-dɨr can also denote generic 'hair, head hair'.
Distinct from tʰükʰ {туьк} 'down / face hair' [Ganieva 2002: 281] (in [Kibrik et al. 1972: 315] glossed as simple 'hair'), borrowed from Azerbaijani tük 'hair, fur, down'.
Etymology: Khinalug pʰɨtʰ 'hair' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *pɨ̆dʷV ~ *bɨ̆tʷV 'a k. of hair or fur' [NCED: 874], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *put(ː) 'a k. of long hair'.
Khinalug čʼar 'a hair' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *cʼʸħʷǝːrǝ 'a k. of hair' or general 'hair' [NCED: 378], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *čʼaˤr 'hair'.
There are two terms for 'hand' in Khinalug:
1) kʰul, quoted above, which is specifically explained as 'hand' in the available source;
2) kʼɨl {кIыл} [Ganieva 2002: 196, 429; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 26; Kibrik et al. 1972: 300, 339]. This term is glossed with polysemy: 'hand / arm / sleeve / handle, grip / tributary (of river)'.
Browsing through textual examples in [Ganieva 2002] suggests that kʰul is the most frequent term for 'hand' in modern Khinalug. Cf. the following instances: “From the roof, reach a hand to the window!” [Ganieva 2002: 38], “Don’t touch it with the hand, this wall may get ruined” [Ganieva 2002: 41], “Don’t touch it with the hand, it’s baddy!” [Ganieva 2002: 59], “Because of his tough skin, he’s able to strike nails in a board by the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 89], “Rub my back with the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 116], “Pull the cord with the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 124 ], “to hit with the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 133], “to make a hand gesture” [Ganieva 2002: 135], “to have armor in the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 137], “I’ll get the ashtray with ther hand” [Ganieva 2002: 202], “I have pushed him aside with the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 279], “to pass the hand over the forelock” [Ganieva 2002: 339], “Hold the scythe in the hand rightly” [Ganieva 2002: 98], “What’s in my hand?” [Ganieva 2002: 341], “to hold in the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 343].
On the contrary, examples for kʼɨl with the meaning 'hand' are less numerous: “He can touch the ceiling with the hand” [Ganieva 2002: 48], “The child try to reach the hand from below” [Ganieva 2002: 166], “Give me bread, I’ll reach the hand to it” [Ganieva 2002: 166].
Apparently, the Proto-Khinalug opposition was kʰul 'hand' / kʼɨl 'arm', but in the modern language kʼɨl has begun to acquire the polysemy 'hand / arm' under the influence of similar polysemy in Azerbaijani and Russian.
Etymology: Khinalug kʰul 'hand' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *kʷiːlʡɨ 'hand' [NCED: 706], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *kʷil 'hand'.
Khinalug kʼɨl 'arm' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *HluƛʼːĔ 'arm' [NCED: 588], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ƛʼːol 'shoulder-blade; foreleg (of animal)'.
A second, also commonly used, candidate is kʰalːˈa {калла} with polysemy: 'head / top of mountain / top of tree / chief' [Ganieva 2002: 146, 375; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 10; Kibrik et al. 1972: 297, 328]. Borrowed from Azerbaijani källä 'head' (ultimately from Persian kalla 'head').
Etymology: Khinalug mikʼ-ir 'head' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *wĕnƛʼV 'head' or 'a part of the head' [NCED: 1041], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *woƛʼul 'head'.
Distinct from tʼopʰ čaχɨn-dä 'to listen' [Ganieva 2002: 288; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 173; Kibrik et al. 1972: 340], literally 'to do čaχɨn with the ear (tʼopʰ)' with the verb čaχɨn-dä '?'. In [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988], the verbal element is transcribed as čʰaχɨn-.
Etymology: there is no obvious etymology for Khinalug (ä)kʰ- 'to hear'. It may originate from Proto-North Caucasian *=i(r)kVl 'to address, talk' [NCED: 650], cognate with the scantily attested Proto-Lezgian verb *ʔi(r)kɨ(r)-, which means 'to hear' in Archi and possibly in Northern Tabasaran.
Etymology: Khinalug ung 'heart' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *yĕrkʼʷĭ 'heart' [NCED: 678], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *yirkʼʷ 'heart'.
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug väčʰ 'horn' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug zɨ 'I (abs.)' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *soː 'I (abs.)' [NCED: 1084], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *zo-n ~ *zo 'I (abs.)'. As proposed in [NCED: 1084], Khinalug erg. yä may go back to the Proto-North Caucasian suppletive form *ʔez(V), Khinalug gen. e/i - to Proto-North Caucasian *ʔiz(V).
Additionally, according to [Ganieva 2002: 196], the suppletive verb kʼ-li / class=ikʼ-ˈi / class=ˈiːb-i-l 'to die' may function as a labile verb with polysemy: 'to die / to kill'.
Etymology: the only external cognate of Khinalug iːb- 'to kill' is Lezgian *VpʼV, which is attested as the perfective stem pʼu-r (pːu-r) 'die/kill' in Udi-Caucasian Albanian (although apparently this is not the Proto-Lezgian perfective stem for these meanings).
Etymology: Khinalug nikʰ 'knee' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *nä{U+0306}kʷV̆ 'knee' [NCED: 844] (without Lezgian cognates).
Etymology: Khinalug mux- 'to know' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *mĕɬːV (~ -ɨ̆-, -x-) 'study, knowledge' [NCED: 803] (without Lezgian cognates).
A second, more marginal expression for 'to lie' is ˈantɨr-qʼ-i [Kibrik et al. 1972: 285, 332] (not documented in other sources), literally 'to be on the ground' with ant-ɨr - the locative form from antʰ 'earth, ground' q.v. - and the auxiliary verb k-wi [imperf.] / class=(i)qʼ-ˈi [perf.] / class=ar [imv.] 'to become' [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: ].
Etymology: as proposed in [NCED: 524], Khinalug ä(=)čːu- 'to lie / to sleep' may originate from Proto-North Caucasian *ɦnicʸːʷV̆ 'night' (cognate to the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʡišːʷ 'night') with the semantic development 'night' > 'to spend the night' > 'to sleep' > 'to lie'.
Etymology: Khinalug =iχˈä 'long' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *HaːχuɫV / *HaːlχV 'long' [NCED: 550], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *hˤalχä- 'long'.
Etymology: Khinalug nimcʼ 'louse' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *nĕmʒːĭ (~ -ĕ) 'louse' [NCED: 846], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *näcʼː 'louse'.
Distinct from other, more marginal terms: pʼapʼˈaχ-kʰidu {пIапIахкиду} 'man', literally 'the one who wears papakha' [Ganieva 2002: 245, 399] and erkeg {эркег} with polysemy: 'male (n.) / man' [Ganieva 2002: 357, 399], borrowed from Azerbaijani erkäk 'male (n.), man'.
A second term for 'male (n.)' is inherited kʰi with polysemy 'ram / male' [Ganieva 2002: 152; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 220].
Etymology: Khinalug lɨg-ɨl 'man' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *lĭwᴌĔ / *ᴌĭwlV̆ 'male' vel sim. [NCED: 749], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ƛːilV- 'male'.
Etymology: Khinalug iχer 'many' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ɦăχE with the semantics of greatness [NCED: 511], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʔaχˤɨ- - probably the basic Proto-Lezgian term for 'many'.
Etymology: Khinalug l(ɨ)ka 'meat' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *rä̆ƛʼːɨ̆ 'meat' [NCED: 945], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *yaƛʼː 'meat'.
Etymology: Khinalug vacʼ 'moon' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *wǝ̆mcʼːŏ 'moon' [NCED: 1044], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *wacː 'moon'.
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug m(ɨ)da 'mountain' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug cʼu(ː) 'name' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ʒːʷĕrhɨ̆ 'name' [NCED: 1098], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *cʼːʷer 'name'.
Etymology: Khinalug san 'night' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *sʷǝnʔV 'yesterday' [NCED: 969] (cognate with Proto-Lezgian *sːan 'yesterday') with the meaning shift {'yesterday' > 'night'}.
Etymology: as proposed in [NCED: 733], Khinalug kʼɨtʰ- 'nose' may originate from Proto-North Caucasian *kʼʷeːmtʼiː (~ -oː) 'lip' (cognate with Proto-Lezgian *kʼʷentʼ 'lip'), with dissimilative deglottalization and a non-standard meaning shift {'lip' > 'nose'(?)}.
Prohibitive is expressed with the suffixes -yi (1st p.), -(Vn)-kʰwi (2nd p.), -(Vn)-si (3rd p.) [Kibrik 1994: 393; Kibrik et al. 1972: 110]
Etymology: as proposed in [NCED: 541], Khinalug negative =i- may go back to Proto-North Caucasian *ɦʷV (without Lezgian cognates) - one of the several negative particles reconstructible for Proto-North Caucasian.
Etymology: Khinalug sa 'one' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *cHǝ̆ 'one' [NCED: 323], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *sːa 'one'.
Etymology: Khinalug qʼula 'rain' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ɢoːHlnV (~ -ɫ-) 'summer, rain season' [NCED: 458] (in [NCED], reconstructed as *ɢHoːlnV ~ -ɫ-; cognate with Proto-Lezgian *qːˤolː 'summer') with the meaning shift {'rain season' > 'rain'}.
A second, more marginal term for 'red' is al {ал} [Ganieva 2002: 34, 392], borrowed from Azerbaijani al 'red, vermilion, purple'.
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug c(ɨ)ma 'red' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug kʼwar 'road' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *Hreːmqʼːĭ 'road' [NCED: 603], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *räqʼːˤ 'road'.
A second term for 'round' is lompʼurtʼˈum {ломпIуртIум} [Ganieva 2002: 210, 393] ~ lˈompurtum [Kibrik et al. 1972: 302, 332] (not quoted in [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990]). Its textual examples are more numerous; all of them indicate the meaning 'round 3D': "round head", "round stone", "round ball" [Ganieva 2002: 210], "round like a plum" [Ganieva 2002: 73], "round like a pumpkin" [Ganieva 2002: 160], "round bonbon" [Ganieva 2002: 237].
Etymology: Khinalug gongwaz 'circle' originates from the phonetically very irregular Proto-North Caucasian root *giːrgʷV 'round' [NCED: 438], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *girgʷV 'round'.
Origin of Khinalug lompʼurtʼum 'round' is unclear.
Two other documented words are the inherited term šum {шум}, which is specified as 'sand mixed with gravel' in [Kibrik et al. 1972: 312, 336], but glossed simply as 'sand' in [Ganieva 2002: 351, 414], and the borrowing pasukʼ {ппасукI} [Ganieva 2002: 142 sub йецIири] (< Russian pʸisˈok 'sand').
Etymology: the inherited šum may be posited as the Proto-Khinalug term for 'sand'. It originates from Proto-North Caucasian *čːä̆mpV 'sand, fine gravel' [NCED: 340], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *šːäm 'sand, fine gravel'.
Distinct from čʰˈɨkʼ-ɨri {чыкIыри} 'to speak, talk' [Ganieva 2002: 336, 375; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 149] (the verb is possibly complex: čʰɨ-kʼ-).
Etymology: no reliable etymology neither for imperfective čʼ- nor for perfective l- nor for imperative liš 'to say'. It is tentatively proposed in [NCED: 625], that l- may contain the fossilized spatial prefix l=, whereas the zero root goes back to Proto-North Caucasian *=iʔʷV 'to say' vel sim. (cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʔiʔʷˤɨ- 'to say').
One could analyse perfective za=class=ʁ- as a complex with the auxiliary verb =ʁ-i and the meaningful root za-, but normally, the auxiliary =ʁ-i forms complex verbs with the semantics of motion (see notes on 'to go'), which is not the case here. Thus, the best solution is to postulate =ʁ- as a meaningful root and treat initial za= as a desemanticized prefix (the synchronic meaning of the verbal prefix z(a)= is something like 'from above' [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 226]). Cf. numerous cases in Lezgian lects when the verb for 'to see' contains a fossilized spatial prefix.
As for imperfective daχ-i, it is proposed in [NCED: 565] to analyze it in the same way: da=χ-i with the fossilized prefix d(a)=, although such a hypothetical prefix is not present in the synchronic spatial exponent system [Kibrik et al. 1972: 225 ff.].
Distinct from the suppletive complex verb l=ˈäkʼ(i)-š-iri [imperf.] / l=ˈäkʼ(i)-š-i ~ lˈeː-š-i [perf.] / l=ˈäkʼi-š ~ leː-š [imv.] 'to look' [Ganieva 2002: 206; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 174; Kibrik et al. 1972: 302].
Etymology: if we accept the prefixal pattern for the imperfective da=χ- 'to see', the root =χ- may go back to Proto-North Caucasian *=HǝχːVr- 'to perceive in some way' [NCED: 565], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʔaχːˤa- 'to teach, learn'.
As for perfective =ʁ-, it is compared in [NCED: 547] to Proto-North Caucasian *=HaːrqʼːV(n) 'to look, see' vel sim. (cognate to Proto-Lezgian *ʔarqʼːˤä- 'to look') with the metathesis *VrCV > *rVCV > Khinalug zaʁ- that is not apt, especially due to the prefixal status of initial za=. One could preserve this connection, assuming the normal cluster simplification *rC > C in Khinalug (*=HaːrqʼːV > Khinalug =ʁ-), but, actually, the development North Caucasian qʼː > Khinalug ʁ is not regular (cf. the only additional example *y[oː]rqʼːĭ 'time, age; maturity' > Khinalug enʁ [NCED: 684]). Thus, the external connections of Khinalug =ʁ- are vague.
Etymology: Khinalug =u- ~ =i- 'to sit' may originate from Proto-North Caucasian *=eʔ(ʷ)Vr 'to sit down' vel sim. [NCED: 409], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʔeʔ(ʷ)Vr-, which is attested as the basic verb for 'to sit' in Tsakhur and Tabasaran.
A second, apparently more marginal term for 'human skin' is the loanword qobˈuʁ {къобугъ} with polysemy: 'bark / peel / shell / skin' (see notes on 'bark'), borrowed from a dialectal variant of Azerbaijani gabɨg (Quba dialect *gabuɣ) 'bark; shell'.
Distinct from kʼir {кIир} 'animal hide' [Ganieva 2002: 193, 390; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 40; Kibrik et al. 1972: 300]
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug tʼäsˈi 'skin' is unclear. As for Khinalug kʼir 'hide', it originates from Proto-North Caucasian *kʼːǝħri (~ -ʕ-) 'a k. of surface like crust, shell' [NCED: 724] (in [NCED], reconstructed as *kʼːħǝri ~ -ʕ-), cognate with Proto-Lezgian *kːar(a) 'crust' vel sim.
A second, more marginal expression for 'to sleep' is the complex verb mˈiš-k-wi [Ganieva 2002: 224; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1988: 169; Kibrik et al. 1972: 304, 341], used only in perfective form. Literally 'to do sleep' with miš 'sleep (n.) / bed' [Ganieva 2002: 224; Kibrik et al. 1972: 304] and the auxiliary verb kʰ-wi 'to do'.
Etymology: as proposed in [NCED: 524], Khinalug ä(=)čːu- 'to lie / to sleep' may originate from Proto-North Caucasian *ɦnicʸːʷV̆ 'night' (cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ʡišːʷ 'night') with the semantic development 'night' > 'to spend the night' > 'to sleep' > 'to lie'.
Distinct from the less frequent or more specific terms: čʼaːtʰ {чIат}, glossed as 'small in size (Russian: мелкий)' in [Ganieva 2002: 340; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 237], and cʼɨpːɨlːˈɨ {цIыппыллы} 'small' [Ganieva 2002: 327].
Etymology: Khinalug misi 'small' (if historically < m=isi with the fossilized class 3 exponent) originates from Proto-North Caucasian *HVnsʸːV 'small' vel sim. [NCED: 614], without Lezgian cognates.
Etymology: Khinalug =χu- 'to stand' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=eːrχːʷV 'to stay' vel sim. [NCED: 417], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʔe(r)χːʷa 'to stay' vel sim.
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug pχuncʼ 'star' is unclear.
Distinct from dahˈar 'big stone, cliff' [Ganieva 2002: 91; Kibrik et al. 1972: 288], ultimately borrowed from Persian dahaːr 'grotto, cavern, cleft in a mountain'.
Etymology: Khinalug rɨcʼɨn 'stone' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *hrŏmcʼʷe 'a k. of stone' [NCED: 495] (cognate with some scant Lezgian forms of similar semantics).
Origin of Khinalug kʼačʼɨn 'stone' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug ɨnqʼ 'sun' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *wirǝːqʼːĂ 'sun' [NCED: 1051], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *wiraqː 'sun'.
Distinct from moqʼˈunčʼ 'fat tail of sheep (курдюк); coccyx' [Ganieva 2002: 225; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 26].
Etymology: Khinalug qʼaž 'tail' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *qʼʷAːcʼĂ / *cʼĂqʼʷAː 'a k. of tail' [NCED: 934], possibly cognate with scantly attested Proto-Lezgian *qʼʷVcʼ- 'goat's tail'.
Origin of Khinalug moqʼˈunčʼ 'fat tail of sheep' is unclear.
As noted in [Kibrik 1994: 382], the most commonly used demonstrative (deictic) pronouns are du 'this' / hu 'that' (both with suppletive paradigms, inflected for class and case). Being substantivized, du and hu can also function as personal pronouns of the 3rd p. 'he, she, it, they'.
Besides these, there is a full speaker-oriented system of demonstrative pronouns on two axis (horizontal and vertical) [Kibrik et al. 1972: 74 f.; Kibrik 1994: 382]: kʰ-based 'this' / tʰ-based 'that on the same level' / q-based 'that below' / tʼ-based 'that above'.
Etymology: Khinalug hu 'that' originates from the Proto-North Caucasian deictic morpheme *ʔu (~ *hu) [NCED: 222] (semantic reconstruction 'that' is possible), cognate with the scantly attested Proto-Lezgian deictic morpheme *ʔu- / *uV- 'there above'.
Etymology: Khinalug du, dä 'this' originates from the Proto-North Caucasian deictic morpheme *dV [NCED: 404] (semantic reconstruction 'that' is possible), cognate with the scantly attested Proto-Lezgian deictic morpheme *dV- (Tabasaran du 'that', Archi gu-dˈu 'that below', ʁu-dˈu 'that above').
Origin of Khinalug ǯi 'this (class 4)' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug vɨ 'thou' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *uoː 'thou' [NCED: 1014], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *u̯o-n 'thou (direct stem)'.
Etymology: Khinalug micʼ 'tongue' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *mĕlcʼːĭ 'tongue' [NCED: 802], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *melcː 'tongue'.
Etymology: Khinalug cʰul- 'tooth' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *cɨ̆ɫɦVː 'tooth' [NCED: 326], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *sɨlː 'tooth'.
Distinct from udˈun 'log, firewood' [Ganieva 2002: 290; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 162], borrowed from Azerbaijani odun 'firewood', and from mašˈa 'forest' [Ganieva 2002: 215; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 95], borrowed from Azerbaijani mešä 'forest'.
Etymology: Khinalug višä 'tree' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ʔʷeːrxi 'a k. of foliage tree' [NCED: 230], cognate with the scantily attested Proto-Lezgian *ʔʷerɬ (~ w-) 'asp, maple'.
Etymology: Khinalug kʼu 'two' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *qʼʷäːH 'two' [NCED: 924] (in [NCED], reconstructed as *qʼHʷäː), cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *qʼʷˤä- 'two'.
It is proposed in [Kibrik et al. 1972: 228] to treat =(ɨ)ʁ-i as an irregular voicing of =χ-i, but we prefer to follow [NCED: 572, 666] and regard two perfective roots with semantics of motion (=)χ-i and =(ɨ)ʁ-i as historically unrelated.
Etymology: No appropriate external etymology for the imperfective root k- / =kː- 'to go'.
The perfective-imperative root χ- 'to go' originates from the Proto-North Caucasian motion verb *=iχːʷV (~ -qː-) [NCED: 666], cognate with the Proto-Lezgian motion verb *ʔiχ(ː)e, which is attested in the imperative and infinitive stems of the suppletive verbs for 'to go' in Aghul (inf. χ-i- / imv. yiχ) and Rutul (imv. =rɨχ).
As for perfective =(ɨ)ʁ-, it is proposed in [NCED: 572] to derive it from the Proto-North Caucasian motion verb *=HimɢːʷV, cognate to the Proto-Lezgian motion verb *ʔiqːʷˤä-, which we reconstruct as the basic Proto-Lezgian imperfective root with polysemy: 'to go / to come'.
Distinct from maχˈa {маха} 'hot' [Ganieva 2002: 214, 376; Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 245; Kibrik et al. 1972: 303], and from the more specific loanword qɨzʁˈɨn {къызгъын} 'very hot, scorching' [Ganieva 2002: 182] (< Azerbaijani gɨzɣɨn 'hot').
Etymology: Khinalug fara 'warm' (if = fa-ra with a rare adjectival suffix) may originate from Proto-North Caucasian *=VːwɬːʷĔr 'to warm up' vel sim. [NCED: 1036], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *ʔeɬ(ː)ʷVr- 'to get heated'.
The origin of Khinalug maχa 'hot' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug xu 'water' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *xːä̆nɦɨ̆ 'water' [NCED: 1060], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ɬːänː 'water'.
Etymology: As proposed in [NCED: 1089], both the direct stem yir and the oblique stem šir- 'we (excl.)' originate from Proto-Khinalug *ži-r, further to Proto-North Caucasian *ži 'we (excl.)', cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian pronoun *ǯi-n 'we (excl.)'.
Etymology: As proposed in [NCED: 786], both the direct stem kʰi-n and the oblique stem kʰi-r- 'we (incl.)' originate from Proto-North Caucasian *ʫäː 'we (incl.)', cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian pronoun *ᴌä-n 'we (incl.)'.
Etymology: Khinalug ya 'what?' originates from the Proto-North Caucasian interrogative morpheme *hiː, *hiː-nV [NCED: 491] (semantic reconstruction 'what?' is possible), cognate with the Proto-Lezgian oblique stem *hi- 'what?'.
Distinct from the loanword aʁ {агъ} 'white fabric' [Ganieva 2002: 29], which is inaccurately glossed as 'white' in [Kibrik et al. 1972: 286, 325] (< Azerbaijani ag 'white').
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug xɨrˈɨcʼ 'white' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug kʰ-la, k-š-i (< *kʰ-š-i) 'who?' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *kʷi 'which?' vel sim. [NCED: 709], cognate with the Proto-Lezgian interrogative *kʷi, which is indeed attested as the direct stem 'who?' in Archi, but nevertheless, it can hardly be reconstructed as the Proto-Lezgian pronoun 'who?'.
Distinct from lɨcʰˈi 'female (adj.)' [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 220], quoted as lɨcːˈi {лыццыи} 'female (subst.)' in [Ganieva 2002: 212].
Etymology: Khinalug χini- 'woman' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *qʷä̆nV 'female' vel sim. [NCED: 900], cognate with the Proto-Lezgian plural stem *χon-pːV 'woman'.
Khinalug lɨcʰˈi 'female' is related to Khinalug lacʰ 'cow', originating from Proto-North Caucasian *yǝːmcoː 'bull, ox' [NCED: 680].
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug kʼuškʼula 'yellow' is unclear.
Etymology: Khinalug miqʼ-el 'near' is the locative form (with the old locative suffix -el) of an unattested noun, which goes back to Proto-North Caucasian *wɨ̆lqʼʷĕ 'place' [NCED: 1054], cognate with Proto-Lezgian *wɨnqʼʷ(a) 'place', whose synchronic locative forms indeed mean 'near' in Kryts, Aghul and Lezgi.
Etymology: Khinalug qʼä 'salt' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *qʼĕɦlV (~ -ɫ-) 'bitter' [NCED: 912], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *qʼäl 'salt' (a clear Lezgian-Khinalug innovation).
A second, more marginal term for 'short (spatial)' is batːˈa {батта} [Ganieva 2002: 57; Kibrik et al. 1972: 287]. According to Ganieva’s examples, its specific meaning is something like 'with short end, short-tailed'.
Etymology: the origin of Khinalug gižä and batːa 'short' is unclear. The former resembles Azerbaijani gɨsa 'short' and related Turkic forms, although in the case of direct borrowing the Khinalug variant **qɨsa should be expected.
Distinct from mɨrdˈar {мырдар} with polysemy: 'unclean, dirty / mean, villainous, foul / snake' [Ganieva 2002: 229], borrowed from Azerbaijani murdar 'unclean, forbidden, villainous'.
Etymology: Khinalug kʼaz 'snake' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *ᴌːăɦrV 'snake' [NCED: 787], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ƛːar 'snake'.
According to [Ganieva 2002; Kibrik et al. 1972], there are two adjectives with the meaning 'thin' in Khinalug: kʼɨr and lokʼ. In [Kibrik et al. 1972], both of them are glossed simply as 'thin', but in [Ganieva 2002], kʼɨr is explicitly specified as 'thin 2D' (in the examples, applied to lavash, paper, ice, dough) with polysemy: 'thin 2D / wiry, lean'. On the contrary, lokʼ displays the polysemy: 'thin 2D / thin 1D / narrow', according to [Ganieva 2002] (in the examples, applied to lavash, log, thread). It should be noted that kʼɨr is quoted in [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990] as the only Khinalug term for 'thin' (with polysemy: 'thin 2D / thin 1D').
It is likely that the original Khinalug opposition was kʼɨr 'thin 2D' / lokʼ 'thin 1D', which is currently being eliminated under the influence of Azerbaijani polysemy.
Etymology: Khinalug kʼɨr 'thin (2D?)' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *=iƛʼɨ̆lV '(to be) thin' [NCED: 639], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *ƛʼɨlä- 'thin 2D'.
Origin of Khinalug lokʼ 'thin (1D?)' is unclear. It is proposed in [NCED: 639] that one of the two Khinalug terms for 'thin' (kʼɨr, lokʼ) may be a loanword, but without any further discussion.
Distinct from the marginal term fɨr-fɨr {фыр-фыр} 'wind' [Ganieva 2002: 302, 368] of onomatopoeic origin.
In [Kibrik & Kodzasov 1990: 88], qʼulačʰ mokʰ is quoted as a basic term for 'worm (in general)' and more widely as a generic name for any small creatures, plus a kind of linear measure. This is apparently an error.
Distinct from qumqumˈa {къумкъума} 'caterpillar' [Ganieva 2002: 180, 377], borrowed from Azerbaijani gumguma 'fruit tree pest'.
Etymology: Khinalug mokʰ 'worm' originates from Proto-North Caucasian *mHilaɢʷV / *ɢʷiHmalV (~ -ɫ-) 'worm' [NCED: 817], cognate with the basic Proto-Lezgian term *mulaqʷˤ 'worm'.
Distinct from yaš {йаш} 'age, years' [Ganieva 2002: 139; Kibrik et al. 1972: 296], borrowed from Azerbaijani yaš 'age, years'.
Etymology: A difficult case. In [NCED: 968], Khinalug üs 'year' is derived from Proto-North Caucasian *sʷĕrho ~ -ɦ- (apparently via consonant metathesis). Such an etymology faces various difficulties. First, Proto-North Caucasian *r (if we proceed from the metathetical variant *r(h)ĕsʷo) normally yields Khinalug r or z [NCED: 44], but not zero. Second, Proto-North Caucasian *sʷĕrho is indeed reflected as 'year' in some daughter languages, but it is more likely that the original meaning of *sʷĕrho was 'old', not 'year' (a more probable candidate for Proto-North Caucasian 'year' is *ʆʷänɨ̆ [NCED: 975]). Particularly, in some Lezgian lects, Proto-North Caucasian *sʷĕrho ~ *r(h)ĕsʷo yields forms with the meaning 'year', but, nevertheless, we prefer to reconstruct Proto-Lezgian *yisː as 'old' (the Proto-Lezgian term for 'year' is rather *sːän < Proto-North Caucasian *ʆʷänɨ̆).
It would be tempting to treat Khinalug üs 'year' as a Lezgi loanword, cf. yus 'year' in the Samur dialectal group (Akhty dialect) of the Lezgi language, but in the dialects of the Quba group (adjacent to the Khinalug territory) as well as in Literary Lezgi, only the non-labialized form yis 'year' seems to be attested.
Thus, the origin of Khinalug üs 'year' remains unclear.
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